Emperor Alexander I
The beginning of the reign of Alexander I was marked by a broad amnesty and the repeal of a number of laws introduced by his father, Paul I.
The secret chancellery was abolished, all political affairs were transferred to the jurisdiction of the courts, torture was prohibited, privileges were returned to the nobility, and censorship was weakened.
In the first liberal reforms of Alexander I, a large role was played by the Secret Committee (an unofficial advisory body), created in 1801, which included friends of Alexander I’s youth: P.A. Stroganov, V.P. Kochubey, A. Chartoryski, N.N. Novosiltsev. During 1801-1804 they gathered with the emperor and together with him thought through the course of transformations and reforms. The secret committee considered issues of Senate and ministerial reform, the activities of the “Permanent Council” (the former State Council, which in 1810 again became known as the State Council), the peasant question, coronation projects of 1801 and a number of foreign policy events. All members of the Secret Committee were adherents of the liberation of peasants and supporters of the constitutional system.
Composition of the Secret Committee
Prince Adam Czartoryski, a European-educated Polish tycoon, his homeland was annexed to Russia after the partition of Poland. He wanted to help Poland gain freedom and openly expressed his views.
Victor Kochubey, a former ambassador to Constantinople, a longtime friend of Alexander, with whom he corresponded and to whom he revealed his most secret thoughts, sought to introduce fair laws and establish order in the country.
Pavel Stroganov. From the family of the largest rich people in Russia, who owned a huge collection of paintings. At the height of the French Revolution, he was in Paris and walked around in a red cap as a sign of solidarity with the revolutionaries. Catherine II urgently returned him to Russia, where he lived in the village for several years. Later, Stroganov reappeared at court, marrying the smartest and most educated woman in St. Petersburg, Princess Sofya Golitsyna, and began to lead the life of an enlightened nobleman.
Nikolay Novosiltsev- a relative of Stroganov - a specialist in law, political economy and general history.
Secretly, friends drew up notes with projects for reforms that included the introduction of civil liberties, equality of all before the law and the creation of a society based on the principles of justice and fraternity.
Alexander, the youngest of them, approved of the views of his like-minded people.
Paul I was alarmed by his son's friendship with liberal-minded young people, and he dispersed the circle: Czartoryski was sent as an envoy to Sardinia, Kochubey into exile in Dresden, Novosiltsev himself went to England, Stroganov was removed from the court - the circle disintegrated. But as soon as Alexander I ascended the throne, the circle was revived, but in the form of a Secret Committee.
The permanent council and the Senate were supposed to personify the continuity of Catherine's and the new reigns, and the Secret Committee became a response to the challenges of the time - primarily to changes in Europe under the influence of the ideas of the French Revolution.
Formally, the Secret Committee was not part of the public administration system, but in regular conversations of its participants, “young friends” of the emperor, plans for transformation were discussed. However, neither the emperor nor his staff had a clear idea of the sequence of necessary reforms.
The circle existed until approximately 1804. The Emperor became increasingly involved in the details of government, and now he did not really need advisers. Members of the former Secret Committee then took high positions in the newly formed ministries.
Activities of the Secret Committee
The first laws they created were the following:
A law that allowed merchants, townspeople and state peasants to acquire uninhabited lands (1801).
The decree “on free cultivators,” which gave landowners the right to free peasants with land for a ransom (1803).
The Senate was declared the supreme body of the empire, concentrating the highest administrative, judicial and supervisory power (1802).
The Synod was headed by a civil official with the rank of chief prosecutor. From 1803 to 1824 The position of Chief Prosecutor was filled by Prince A. N. Golitsyn, who had also been the Minister of Public Education since 1816.
The ministerial reform began on September 8, 1802 with the Manifesto “On the Establishment of Ministries.” 8 ministries were approved, replacing Peter's colleges (liquidated by Catherine II and restored by Paul I):
- foreign affairs
- military ground forces
- naval forces
- internal affairs
- finance
- Justice
- commerce
- public education.
Ministries were built on the principle of unity of command.
Education
In 1803, new principles of the education system were set out:
- lack of class;
- free education at lower levels;
- continuity of educational programs.
The education system consisted of levels:
- university
- gymnasium in the provincial town
- district school
- one-class parochial school.
Expansion of the Russian Empire
From the very beginning of the reign of Alexander I, Russia significantly expanded its territory: in 1801, Eastern Georgia joined it; in 1803-1804 – Mengrelia, Guria, Imereti; However, the actions of Russian troops in Transcaucasia affected the interests of Persia, which was the cause of the Russian-Persian War, which lasted from 1804 to 1813 and ended with the signing of the Treaty of Gulistan in 1813 and the annexation of Baku, Derbent, Karabakh and other Transcaucasian khanates to Russia. According to the agreement, Russia was given the exclusive right to have its own military fleet in the Caspian Sea. The annexation of part of Transcaucasia to Russia, on the one hand, saved the peoples of Transcaucasia from the invasions of Persian and Turkish invaders and helped raise the economy of Transcaucasia to a higher level; on the other hand, between the Caucasian peoples and the Russian authorities and Russian settlers, quarrels often arose on religious and ethnic grounds, which gave rise to instability in the region.
Persia did not accept the loss of Transcaucasia. Pushed by Great Britain, it soon launched a new war against Russia, which ended with the defeat of Persia and the signing of the Turkmanchay Peace Treaty in 1828.
Borders before and after the conclusion of the agreement
The Russian Empire also included Finland, Bessarabia, and most of Poland (which formed the Kingdom of Poland).
Peasant question
In 1818, Alexander I instructed Admiral Mordvinov, Count Arakcheev and Count Guryev to develop projects for the abolition of serfdom.
Mordvinov's project:
- peasants receive personal freedom, but without land, which remains entirely with the landowners;
- the amount of the ransom depends on the age of the peasant: 9-10 years - 100 rubles; 30-40 years old - 2 thousand; 40-50 years -...
Arakcheev's project:
- The liberation of the peasants should be carried out under the leadership of the government - gradually redeem the peasants with land (two dessiatines per capita) by agreement with the landowners at prices in the area.
Guryev's project:
- the slow purchase of peasant land from landowners in sufficient quantities; the program was designed for 60 years, that is, until 1880.
As a result, the peasant issue was not fundamentally resolved under Alexander I.
Arakcheevo military settlements
At the end of 1815, Alexander I began discussing the project of military settlements, the development of a plan for which was entrusted to Arakcheev.
The goals of the project were to ensure that the new military-agricultural class could, on its own, maintain and recruit a standing army without burdening the country’s budget; the size of the army was to be maintained at wartime levels, and the main population of the country was exempt from the obligation to maintain the army. These military settlements were also supposed to serve as cover for the western border.
In August 1816, preparations began for the transfer of troops and residents to the category of military villagers. In 1817, settlements were introduced in the Novgorod, Kherson and Sloboda-Ukrainian provinces. The growth in the number of districts of military settlements, gradually surrounding the border of the empire from the Baltic to the Black Sea, continued until the end of the reign of Alexander I. Military settlements were abolished in 1857.
J. Doe "Portrait of A.A. Arakcheev"
Oppressor of all Russia,
Governors tormentor
And he is the teacher of the Council,
And he is a friend and brother to the king.
Full of anger, full of revenge,
Without a mind, without feelings, without honor,
Who is he? Devoted without flattery
…..penny soldier.
We know this epigram by A.S. Pushkin to Arakcheev from school textbooks. And the word “Arakcheevism” for us is associated with the concept of gross arbitrariness and despotism. Meanwhile, historians of the 20th century began to evaluate his personality somewhat differently. It turns out that the initiator of the creation of military settlements was Alexander I himself, and Arakcheev was against it, but, as an honest soldier, he fulfilled his duty. All his life he fiercely hated bribery: those caught red-handed were immediately expelled from their positions. Red tape and extortion for the purpose of obtaining a bribe were pursued by him mercilessly. Arakcheev strictly monitored the implementation of the assigned work. For this, the clerical community, in which the passion for bribes was ineradicable, hated Arakcheev. Most likely, it was this that created such a negative impression of him.
Pushkin subsequently changed his attitude towards Arakcheev and wrote about the news of his death: “I am the only one in all of Russia who regrets this - I was not able to meet with him and talk to him.”
Opposition movement
It was especially strong against military settlements: in 1819, an uprising broke out in Chuguev near Kharkov, in 1820 - on the Don: 2,556 villages were engulfed in rebellion.
On October 16, 1820, the uprising of the Semenovsky regiment began, and under its influence, fermentation began in other parts of the St. Petersburg garrison.
In 1821, secret police were introduced into the army.
In 1822, a decree was issued banning secret organizations and Masonic lodges.
Wars in which Russia took part during the reign of AlexanderI
Against the Napoleonic Empire outside Russia (1805-1807).
Russian-Swedish War (1808-1809). The reason was the refusal of the King of Sweden, Gustav IV Adolf, to join the anti-English coalition. Result of the war:
- Finland and the Åland Islands passed to Russia;
- Sweden pledged to dissolve the alliance with England and make peace with France and Denmark, and join the continental blockade.
In 1806-1812. Russia waged war against Turkey. And as a result of the skillful diplomatic actions of M.I. Kutuzov, the Ottoman government was inclined to sign a peace treaty.
Lithograph "Alexander I accepts the surrender of Paris"
1804-1813 - Russian-Persian War.
1813-1814 — Foreign campaigns of the Russian army. In 1815, Alexander I was one of the leaders of the Congress of Vienna, which established a new European order.
Russian Emperor Alexander I Pavlovich was born on December 25 (12 according to the old style) December 1777. He was the first-born son of Emperor Paul I (1754-1801) and Empress Maria Feodorovna (1759-1828).
Immediately after his birth, Alexander was taken from his parents by his grandmother, Empress Catherine II, who intended to raise the baby as an ideal sovereign. On the recommendation of the philosopher Denis Diderot, the Swiss Frederic Laharpe, a republican by conviction, was invited to become a teacher.
Grand Duke Alexander grew up with faith in the ideals of the Enlightenment, sympathized with the Great French Revolution and was critical of the system of Russian autocracy.
Alexander's critical attitude towards the policies of Paul I contributed to his involvement in the conspiracy against his father, but on the conditions that the conspirators would save the life of the king and would only seek his abdication. The violent death of Paul on March 23 (11 according to the old calendar) seriously affected Alexander - he felt a sense of guilt for the death of his father until the end of his days.
In the first days after ascending the throne in March 1801, Alexander I created the Permanent Council - a legislative advisory body under the sovereign, which had the right to protest the actions and decrees of the tsar. But due to inconsistencies among members, none of his projects were made public.
Alexander I carried out a number of reforms: merchants, townspeople and state-owned (related to the state) villagers were given the right to buy uninhabited lands (1801), ministries and a cabinet of ministers were established (1802), a decree was issued on free cultivators (1803), which created the category personally free peasants.
In 1822, Alexander founded Masonic lodges and other secret societies.
Emperor Alexander I died on December 2 (November 19, old style) 1825 from typhoid fever in Taganrog, where he accompanied his wife, Empress Elizabeth Alekseevna, for treatment.
The emperor often told his loved ones about his intention to abdicate the throne and “remove the world,” which gave rise to the legend about the elder Fyodor Kuzmich, according to which Alexander’s double died and was buried in Taganrog, while the king lived as an old hermit in Siberia and died in 1864
Alexander I was married to the German princess Louise-Maria-August of Baden-Baden (1779-1826), who adopted the name Elizabeth Alekseevna upon converting to Orthodoxy. From this marriage two daughters were born who died in infancy.
The material was prepared based on information from open sources
Since the relationship between father and grandmother did not work out, the empress took her grandson from his parents. Catherine II immediately became inflamed with great love for her grandson and decided that she would make an ideal emperor out of the newborn.
Alexander was raised by the Swiss Laharpe, whom many considered a staunch republican. The prince received a good Western-style education.
Alexander believed in the possibility of creating an ideal, humane society, he sympathized with the French Revolution, felt sorry for the Poles deprived of statehood, and was skeptical of the Russian autocracy. Time, however, dispelled his faith in such ideals...
Alexander I became Emperor of Russia after the death of Paul I as a result of a palace coup. The events that occurred on the night of March 11th to 12th, 1801, affected the life of Alexander Pavlovich. He was very worried about his father's death, and a feeling of guilt haunted him all his life.
Domestic policy of Alexander I
The Emperor saw the mistakes his father made during his reign. The main reason for the conspiracy against Paul I was the abolition of privileges for the nobility, which were introduced by Catherine II. The first thing he did was restore these rights.
Domestic policy had a strictly liberal tint. He declared an amnesty for people who had been repressed during his father's reign, allowed them to travel abroad freely, reduced censorship and returned the foreign press.
Conducted a large-scale reform of public administration in Russia. In 1801, the Permanent Council was created - a body that had the right to discuss and cancel the emperor's decrees. The permanent council had the status of a legislative body.
Instead of boards, ministries were created, headed by responsible persons. This is how the cabinet of ministers was formed, which became the most important administrative body of the Russian Empire. During the reign of Alexander I, initiatives played a big role. He was a talented man with great ideas in his head.
Alexander I distributed all sorts of privileges to the nobility, but the emperor understood the seriousness of the peasant issue. Many titanic efforts were made to alleviate the situation of the Russian peasantry.
In 1801, a decree was adopted according to which merchants and townspeople could buy vacant lands and organize economic activities on them using hired labor. This decree destroyed the monopoly of the nobility on land ownership.
In 1803, a decree was issued that went down in history as the “Decree on Free Plowmen.” Its essence was that now the landowner could make a serf free for a ransom. But such a deal is possible only with the consent of both parties.
Free peasants had the right to property. Throughout the reign of Alexander I, continuous work was carried out aimed at solving the most important internal political issue - the peasant one. Various projects were developed to grant freedom to the peasantry, but they remained only on paper.
There was also an education reform. The Russian Emperor understood that the country needed new highly qualified personnel. Now educational institutions were divided into four successive levels.
The territory of the Empire was divided into educational districts, headed by local universities. The university provided staff and training programs to local schools and gymnasiums. 5 new universities, many gymnasiums and colleges were opened in Russia.
Foreign policy of Alexander I
His foreign policy is, first of all, “recognizable” from the Napoleonic wars. Russia was at war with France during most of the reign of Alexander Pavlovich. In 1805, a major battle between the Russian and French armies took place. The Russian army was defeated.
Peace was signed in 1806, but Alexander I refused to ratify the treaty. In 1807, Russian troops were defeated at Friedland, after which the emperor had to conclude the Peace of Tilsit.
Napoleon sincerely considered the Russian Empire his only ally in Europe. Alexander I and Bonaparte seriously discussed the possibility of joint military action against India and Turkey.
France recognized the rights of the Russian Empire to Finland, and Russia recognized the rights of France to Spain. But for a number of reasons, Russia and France could not be allies. The interests of countries collided in the Balkans.
Also, a stumbling block between the two powers was the existence of the Duchy of Warsaw, which prevented Russia from conducting profitable trade. In 1810, Napoleon asked for the hand of Alexander Pavlovich's sister, Anna, but was refused.
In 1812, the Patriotic War began. After Napoleon was expelled from Russia, foreign campaigns of the Russian army began. During the events of the Napoleonic wars, many worthy people wrote their names in golden letters in the history of Russia: , Davydov, ...
Alexander I died on November 19, 1825 in Taganrog. The emperor died of typhoid fever. The unexpected death of the emperor gave rise to many rumors. There was a legend among the people that instead of Alexander I they buried a completely different person, and the emperor himself began to wander around the country and, having reached Siberia, settled in this area leading the life of an old hermit.
To summarize, we can say that the reign of Alexander I can be characterized in positive terms. He was one of the first to talk about the importance of limiting autocratic power, introducing a Duma and a constitution. With him, voices calling for the abolition of serfdom began to sound louder and louder, and a lot of work was done in this regard.
During the reign of Alexander I (1801 - 1825), Russia was able to successfully defend itself against an external enemy that conquered all of Europe. became the personification of the unity of the Russian people in the face of external danger. The successful defense of the borders of the Russian Empire is undoubtedly a great advantage of Alexander I.
Alexander I became Russian Emperor as a result of a palace coup and regicide on March 11, 1801.
In the first years of his reign, he believed that the country needed fundamental reforms and serious renewal. To carry out reforms, he created a Secret Committee to discuss reform projects. The secret committee put forward the idea of limiting autocracy, but first it was decided to carry out reforms in the field of management. In 1802, the reform of the highest bodies of state power began, ministries were created, and the Committee of Ministers was established. In 1803, a decree on “free cultivators” was issued, according to which landowners could free their serfs with land plots for a ransom. After an appeal from the Baltic landowners, he approved the law on the complete abolition of serfdom in Estland (1811).
In 1809, the Emperor's Secretary of State M. Speransky presented the Tsar with a project for a radical reform of public administration - a project for creating a constitutional monarchy in Russia. Having met active resistance from the nobles, Alexander I abandoned the project.
In 1816-1822. In Russia, noble secret societies arose - the “Union of Salvation”. Welfare Union Southern Society, Northern Society - with the aim of introducing a republican constitution or a constitutional monarchy in Russia. Towards the end of his reign, Alexander I, experiencing pressure from the nobles and fearing popular uprisings, abandoned all liberal ideas and serious reforms.
In 1812, Russia experienced an invasion by Napoleon's army, the defeat of which ended with the entry of Russian troops into Paris. Fundamental changes have taken place in Russia's foreign policy. Unlike Paul I, who supported Napoleon, Alexander, on the contrary, opposed France, and resumed trade and political relations with England.
In 1801, Russia and England concluded an anti-French convention “On Mutual Friendship,” and then, in 1804, Russia joined the third anti-French coalition. After the defeat at Austerlitz in 1805, the coalition fell apart. In 1807, the forced Peace of Tilsit was signed with Napoleon. Subsequently, Russia and its allies inflicted a decisive defeat on Napoleon’s army in the “Battle of the Nations” near Leipzig in 1813.
In 1804-1813. Russia won the war with Iran and seriously expanded and strengthened its southern borders. In 1806-1812. There was a protracted Russian-Turkish war. As a result of the war with Sweden in 1808-1809. Finland was included in Russia, and later Poland (1814).
In 1814, Russia took part in the work of the Congress of Vienna to resolve issues of the post-war structure of Europe and in the creation of the Holy Alliance to ensure peace in Europe, which included Russia and almost all European countries.
BEGINNING OF THE REIGN OF ALEXANDER I
And yet, the first years of the reign of Alexander I left the best memories among contemporaries, “Alexander’s Days are a wonderful beginning” - this is how A.S. described these years. Pushkin. A short period of enlightened absolutism ensued.” Universities, lyceums, and gymnasiums were opened. Measures were taken to alleviate the situation of the peasants. Alexander stopped distributing state peasants to landowners. In 1803, a decree on “free cultivators” was adopted. According to the decree, the landowner could free his peasants by allocating them land and receiving a ransom from them. But the landowners were in no hurry to take advantage of this decree. During the reign of Alexander I, only 47 thousand male souls were freed. But the ideas contained in the decree of 1803 subsequently formed the basis for the reform of 1861.
The Secret Committee proposed a ban on selling serfs without land. Human trafficking was carried out in Russia in open, cynical forms. Advertisements for the sale of serfs were published in newspapers. At the Makaryevskaya fair they were sold along with other goods, families were separated. Sometimes a Russian peasant, bought at a fair, went to distant eastern countries, where he lived as a foreign slave until the end of his days.
Alexander I wanted to stop such shameful phenomena, but the proposal to prohibit the sale of peasants without land encountered stubborn resistance from senior dignitaries. They believed that this undermined serfdom. Without showing persistence, the young emperor retreated. It was only prohibited to publish advertisements for the sale of people.
By the beginning of the 19th century. the administrative system of the state was in a state of obvious collapse. The introduced collegial form of central government clearly did not justify itself. A circular irresponsibility reigned in the colleges, covering up bribery and embezzlement. Local authorities, taking advantage of the weakness of central government, committed lawlessness.
At first, Alexander I hoped to restore order and strengthen the state by introducing a ministerial system of central government based on the principle of unity of command. In 1802, instead of the previous 12 boards, 8 ministries were created: military, maritime, foreign affairs, internal affairs, commerce, finance, public education and justice. This measure strengthened central administration. But no decisive victory was achieved in the fight against abuses. Old vices have taken up residence in the new ministries. As they grew, they rose to the upper levels of state power. Alexander knew of senators who took bribes. The desire to expose them fought in him with the fear of damaging the prestige of the Senate. It became obvious that changes in the bureaucratic machine alone could not solve the problem of creating a system of state power that would actively contribute to the development of the country's productive forces, rather than devouring its resources. A fundamentally new approach to solving the problem was required.
Bokhanov A.N., Gorinov M.M. History of Russia from the beginning of the 18th to the end of the 19th century, M., 2001
“RUSSIAN POLITICS DO NOT EXIST”
Russian, Russian politics during the reign of Emperor Alexander I, one might say, does not exist. There is European politics (a hundred years later they would say “pan-European”), there is the politics of the universe - the politics of the Holy Alliance. And there is the “Russian policy” of foreign offices that use Russia and its Tsar for their own selfish purposes through the skillful work of trusted persons who have unlimited influence on the Tsar (such as, for example, Pozzo di Borgo and Michaud de Boretour - two amazing adjutant generals who ruled Russian politics , but during their long tenure as adjutant general they did not learn a single Russian word).
Four phases can be observed here:
The first is the era of predominantly English influence. This is “the wonderful beginning of the Alexandrov days.” The young Sovereign is not averse to dreaming among intimate friends about “projects for the Russian constitution.” England is the ideal and patron of all liberalism, including Russian. At the head of the English government, Pitt Jr. is the great son of a great father, the mortal enemy of France in general and Bonaparte in particular. They come up with the wonderful idea of liberating Europe from the tyranny of Napoleon (England takes over the financial side). The result is a war with France, a second French war... True, little English blood has been shed, but Russian blood flows like a river at Austerlitz and Pultusk, Eylau and Friedland.
Friedland is followed by Tilsit, who opens the second era - the era of French influence. The genius of Napoleon makes a deep impression on Alexander... The Tilsit banquet, the St. George crosses on the chests of the French grenadiers... The Erfurt meeting - the Emperor of the West, the Emperor of the East... Russia has a free hand on the Danube, where it is waging war with Turkey, but Napoleon gets freedom of action in Spain. Russia recklessly joins the continental system without considering all the consequences of this step.
Napoleon left for Spain. In the meantime, in the brilliant Prussian head of Stein, a plan had matured for the liberation of Germany from the yoke of Napoleon - a plan based on Russian blood... From Berlin to St. Petersburg is closer than from Madrid to St. Petersburg. Prussian influence begins to supplant French. Stein and Pfuel handled the matter skillfully, deftly presenting to the Russian Emperor all the greatness of the feat of “saving the kings and their peoples.” At the same time, their accomplices set Napoleon against Russia, in every possible way insinuating Russia’s non-compliance with the Continental Treaty, touching on Napoleon’s sore spot, his hatred of his main enemy - England. Relations between the Erfurt allies completely deteriorated and a trifling reason (skilfully inflated by the efforts of German well-wishers) was enough to involve Napoleon and Alexander in a brutal three-year war that bled and ruined their countries - but turned out to be extremely profitable (as the instigators had hoped) for Germany in general and for Prussia in particular.
Taking full advantage of the weaknesses of Alexander I - a passion for poses and mysticism - foreign cabinets, through subtle flattery, made him believe in their messianism and, through their trusted people, instilled in him the idea of the Holy Alliance, which then turned in their skillful hands into the Holy Alliance of Europe against Russia. Contemporary to those sad events, the engraving depicts “the oath of the three monarchs on the tomb of Frederick the Great in eternal friendship.” An oath for which four Russian generations paid a terrible price. At the Congress of Vienna, Galicia, which she had recently received, was taken away from Russia, and in exchange the Duchy of Warsaw was given, which prudently, to the greater glory of Germanism, introduced a Polish element hostile to it into Russia. In this fourth period, Russian policy is directed at the behest of Metternich.
WAR OF 1812 AND THE FOREIGN CAMPAIGN OF THE RUSSIAN ARMY
Of the 650 thousand soldiers of Napoleon’s “Great Army”, according to some sources, 30 thousand returned home, according to others, 40 thousand soldiers. Essentially, Napoleonic's army was not expelled, but exterminated in the vast snow-covered expanses of Russia. On December 21, he reported to Alexander: “The war is over with the complete extermination of the enemy.” On December 25, a royal manifesto was issued to coincide with the Nativity of Christ, announcing the end of the war. Russia turned out to be the only country in Europe capable of not only resisting Napoleonic aggression, but also inflicting a crushing blow on it. The secret of the victory was that it was a national liberation, truly Patriotic, war. But this victory came at a high cost to the people. Twelve provinces, which became the scene of hostilities, were devastated. The ancient Russian cities of Smolensk, Polotsk, Vitebsk, and Moscow were burned and destroyed. Direct military losses amounted to over 300 thousand soldiers and officers. There were even greater losses among the civilian population.
The victory in the Patriotic War of 1812 had a huge impact on all aspects of the country's social, political and cultural life, contributed to the growth of national self-awareness, and gave a powerful impetus to the development of advanced social thought in Russia.
But the victorious end of the Patriotic War of 1812 did not mean that Russia managed to put an end to Napoleon’s aggressive plans. He himself openly announced the preparation of a new campaign against Russia, feverishly putting together a new army for the campaign of 1813.
Alexander I decided to forestall Napoleon and immediately transfer military operations outside the country. In fulfillment of his will, Kutuzov wrote in an army order dated December 21, 1812: “Without stopping among heroic deeds, we now move on. Let’s cross the borders and strive to complete the defeat of the enemy on his own fields.” Both Alexander and Kutuzov rightly counted on help from the peoples conquered by Napoleon, and their calculation was justified.
On January 1, 1813, a hundred thousand Russian army under the command of Kutuzov crossed the Neman and entered Poland. On February 16, in Kalisz, where the headquarters of Alexander I was located, an offensive and defensive alliance was concluded between Russia and Prussia. Prussia also took upon itself the obligation to supply the Russian army with food on its territory.
At the beginning of March, Russian troops occupied Berlin. By this time, Napoleon had formed an army of 300 thousand, of which 160 thousand soldiers moved against the allied forces. A heavy loss for Russia was the death of Kutuzov on April 16, 1813 in the Silesian city of Bunzlau. Alexander I appointed P.Kh. as commander-in-chief of the Russian army. Wittgenstein. His attempts to pursue his own strategy, different from Kutuzov’s, led to a number of failures. Napoleon, having inflicted defeats on the Russian-Prussian troops at Lutzen and Bautzen at the end of April - beginning of May, threw them back to the Oder. Alexander I replaced Wittgenstein as commander-in-chief of the Allied forces with Barclay de Tolly.
In July - August 1813, England, Sweden and Austria joined the anti-Napoleonic coalition. The coalition had up to half a million soldiers at its disposal, divided into three armies. The Austrian field marshal Karl Schwarzenberg was appointed commander-in-chief of all armies, and the general leadership of military operations against Napoleon was carried out by the council of three monarchs - Alexander I, Franz I and Friedrich Wilhelm III.
By the beginning of August 1813, Napoleon already had 440 thousand soldiers, and on August 15 he defeated the coalition troops near Dresden. Only the victory of Russian troops three days after the Battle of Dresden over the corps of Napoleonic General D. Vandam near Kulm prevented the collapse of the coalition.
The decisive battle during the 1813 campaign took place near Leipzig on October 4-7. It was a "battle of the nations." More than half a million people took part in it on both sides. The battle ended in victory for the allied Russian-Prussian-Austrian troops.
After the Battle of Leipzig, the Allies slowly advanced towards the French border. In two and a half months, almost the entire territory of the German states was liberated from French troops, with the exception of some fortresses, in which the French garrisons stubbornly defended themselves until the very end of the war.
On January 1, 1814, the Allied troops crossed the Rhine and entered French territory. By this time, Denmark had joined the anti-Napoleonic coalition. The allied troops were continuously replenished with reserves, and by the beginning of 1814 they already numbered up to 900 thousand soldiers. Over the two winter months of 1814, Napoleon won 12 battles against them and drew two. There was again hesitation in the coalition camp. The Allies offered Napoleon peace on the terms of the return of France to the borders of 1792. Napoleon refused. Alexander I insisted on continuing the war, striving to overthrow Napoleon from the throne. At the same time, Alexander I did not want the restoration of the Bourbons to the French throne: he proposed leaving Napoleon’s young son on the throne under the regency of his mother Marie-Louise. On March 10, Russia, Austria, Prussia and England concluded the Treaty of Chaumont, according to which they pledged not to enter into separate negotiations with Napoleon on peace or an armistice. The threefold superiority of the Allies in the number of troops by the end of March 1814 led to a victorious end to the campaign. Having won the battles of Laon and Arcy-sur-Aube in early March, a 100,000-strong group of allied troops moved towards Paris, defended by a 45,000-strong garrison. On March 19, 1814, Paris capitulated. Napoleon rushed to liberate the capital, but his marshals refused to fight and forced him to sign an abdication on March 25. According to the peace treaty signed on May 18 (30), 1814 in Paris, France returned to the borders of 1792. Napoleon and his dynasty were deprived of the French throne, on which the Bourbons were restored. Louis XVIII became the King of France, having returned from Russia, where he had been in exile.
FUN AND ENTERTAINMENT OF THE ALEXANDER ERA
The dynasty's holidays were national days of rest and festivities, and every year all of St. Petersburg, overwhelmed with festive excitement, waited for July 22. A few days before the celebrations, thousands of people rushed from the city along the Peterhof road: nobles in luxurious carriages, nobles, townspeople, commoners - whoever had what. A journal from the 1820s tells us:
“Several people are crowded on the droshky and willingly endure the shaking and anxiety; there, in a Chukhon wagon, there is a whole family with large supplies of provisions of all kinds, and they all patiently swallow the thick dust... Moreover, on both sides of the road there are many pedestrians, whose hunting and the strength of their legs overpower the lightness of their wallet; peddlers of various fruits and berries - and they rush to Peterhof in the hope of profit and vodka. ...The pier also presents a lively picture, here thousands of people are crowded and rush to get on the ship.”
Petersburgers spent several days in Peterhof - the parks were open to everyone. Tens of thousands of people spent the night right on the streets. The warm, short, bright night did not seem tiresome to anyone. The nobles slept in their carriages, the townspeople and peasants in the carts, hundreds of carriages formed real bivouacs. Everywhere one could see chewing horses and people sleeping in the most picturesque positions. These were peaceful hordes, everything was unusually quiet and orderly, without the usual drunkenness and massacres. After the end of the holiday, the guests just as peacefully left for St. Petersburg, life returned to its usual rut until next summer...
In the evening, after dinner and dancing in the Grand Palace, a masquerade began in the Lower Park, where everyone was allowed. By this time, Peterhof parks were being transformed: alleys, fountains, cascades, as in the 18th century, were decorated with thousands of lit bowls and multi-colored lamps. Bands played everywhere, crowds of guests in fancy dress walked along the alleys of the park, making way for cavalcades of elegant horsemen and carriages of members of the royal family.
With the accession of Alexander, Petersburg celebrated its first century with particular joy. In May 1803, there were continuous celebrations in the capital. On the city's birthday, spectators saw how a countless number of festively dressed people filled all the alleys of the Summer Garden... on Tsaritsyno Meadow there were booths, swings and other devices for all kinds of folk games. In the evening, the Summer Garden, the main buildings on the embankment, the fortress and the small Dutch house of Peter the Great... were magnificently illuminated. On the Neva, a flotilla of small ships of the imperial squadron, decorated with flags, was also brightly lit, and on the deck of one of these ships was visible... the so-called “Grandfather of the Russian Fleet” - the boat from which the Russian fleet began...
Anisimov E.V. Imperial Russia. St. Petersburg, 2008
LEGENDS AND RUMORS ABOUT THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER I
What happened there in the south is shrouded in mystery. It is officially known that Alexander I died on November 19, 1825 in Taganrog. The sovereign's body was hastily embalmed and taken to St. Petersburg. […] And from about 1836, already under Nicholas I, rumors spread throughout the country that among the people there lived a certain wise old man, Fyodor Kuzmich Kuzmin, righteous, educated and very, very similar to the late emperor, although at the same time he did not at all pretend to be an impostor . He walked around the holy places of Rus' for a long time, and then settled in Siberia, where he died in 1864. The fact that the elder was not a commoner was clear to everyone who saw him.
But then a furious and insoluble dispute flared up: who is he? Some say that this is the once brilliant cavalry guard Fyodor Uvarov, who mysteriously disappeared from his estate. Others believe that it was Emperor Alexander himself. Of course, among the latter there are many crazy people and graphomaniacs, but there are also serious people. They pay attention to many strange facts. The cause of death of the 47-year-old emperor, in general a healthy, active person, is not fully understood. There is some strange confusion in the documents about the death of the tsar, and this led to the suspicion that the papers were drawn up retroactively. When the body was delivered to the capital, when the coffin was opened, everyone was amazed by the cry of the mother of the deceased, Empress Maria Feodorovna, at the sight of Alexander’s dark, “like a Moor” face: “This is not my son!” They talked about some kind of mistake during embalming. Or maybe, as supporters of the tsar’s departure claim, this mistake was not accidental? Just shortly before November 19, the courier crashed before the eyes of the sovereign - the carriage was carried by horses. They put him in the coffin, and Alexander himself...
[…] In recent months, Alexander I has changed a lot. It seemed that he was possessed by some important thought, which made him thoughtful and decisive at the same time. […] Finally, relatives recalled how Alexander often talked about how he was tired and dreamed of leaving the throne. The wife of Nicholas I, Empress Alexandra Feodorovna, wrote in her diary a week before their coronation on August 15, 1826:
“Probably, when I see the people, I will think about how the late Emperor Alexander, telling us once about his abdication, added: “How I will rejoice when I see you passing by me, and in the crowd I will shout to you “Hurray!” ", waving his hat."
Opponents object to this: is it a known thing to give up such power? And all these conversations of Alexander are just his usual pose, affectation. And in general, why did the king need to go to the people that he did not like so much? Weren't there other ways to live without a throne - let's remember the Swedish Queen Christina, who left the throne and went to enjoy life in Italy. Or you could settle in Crimea and build a palace. Yes, it was possible to go to the monastery, finally. […] Meanwhile, from one shrine to another, pilgrims wandered across Russia with staffs and knapsacks. Alexander saw them many times during his trips around the country. These were not vagabonds, but people filled with faith and love for their neighbors, eternal enchanted wanderers of Rus'. Their continuous movement along an endless road, their faith, visible in their eyes and not requiring proof, could suggest a way out to a tired sovereign...
In a word, there is no clarity in this story. The best expert on the time of Alexander I, historian N.K. Schilder, the author of a fundamental work about him, a brilliant expert on documents and an honest person, said:
“The whole dispute is only possible because some certainly want Alexander I and Fyodor Kuzmich to be one and the same person, while others absolutely do not want this. Meanwhile, there is no definite data to resolve this issue in one direction or another. I can give as much evidence in favor of the first opinion as in favor of the second, and no definite conclusion can be drawn.” […]
Emperor Alexander I Pavlovich, sometimes mistakenly called Tsar Alexander I, ascended the throne in 1801 and ruled for almost a quarter of a century. Russia under Alexander I fought successful wars against Turkey, Persia and Sweden, and was later drawn into the War of 1812 when Napoleon attacked the country. During the reign of Alexander I, the territory expanded due to the annexation of Eastern Georgia, Finland, Bessarabia and part of Poland. For all the transformations introduced by Alexander I, he was called Alexander the Blessed.
Power todayThe biography of Alexander I was initially supposed to be outstanding. Not only was he the eldest son of the emperor and his wife Maria Feodorovna, but his grandmother doted on her grandson. It was she who gave the boy a sonorous name in honor and, in the hope that Alexander would create history following the example of his legendary namesakes. It is worth noting that the name itself was unusual for the Romanovs, and only after the reign of Alexander I it firmly entered the family nomenclature.
Arguments and Facts The personality of Alexander I was formed under the tireless supervision of Catherine the Great. The fact is that the empress initially considered the son of Paul I incapable of taking the throne and wanted to crown her grandson “over the head” of his father. The grandmother tried to ensure that the boy had almost no contact with his parents, however, Pavel had influence on his son and he adopted from him a love for military science. The young heir grew up affectionate, smart, easily absorbed new knowledge, but at the same time he was very lazy and proud, which is why Alexander I was unable to learn to concentrate on painstaking and lengthy work.
Wikiwand Contemporaries of Alexander I noted that he had a very lively mind, incredible insight and was easily attracted to everything new. But since he was actively influenced from childhood by two opposing natures, his grandmother and his father, the child was forced to learn to please absolutely everyone, which became the main characteristic of Alexander I. Even Napoleon called him an “actor” in a good sense, and Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin wrote about Emperor Alexander “in the face and life of a harlequin.”
Runiverse Passionate about military affairs, the future Emperor Alexander I served in the Gatchina troops, which his father personally formed. The service resulted in deafness in the left ear, but this did not prevent Paul I from promoting his son to colonel of the guard when he was only 19 years old. A year later, the ruler’s son became the military governor of St. Petersburg and headed the Semenovsky Guards Regiment, then Alexander I briefly presided over the military parliament, after which he began to sit in the Senate.
Reign of Alexander I
Emperor Alexander I ascended the throne immediately after the violent death of his father. A number of facts confirm that he was aware of the plans of the conspirators to overthrow Paul I, although he may not have suspected the regicide. It was the new head of the Russian Empire who announced the “apoplectic stroke” that struck his father, literally a few minutes after his death. In September 1801, Alexander I was crowned.
Ascension of Emperor Alexander to the throne | Runiverse The very first decrees of Alexander I showed that he intended to eradicate judicial arbitrariness in the state and introduce strict legality. Today it seems incredible, but at that time there were practically no strict fundamental laws in Russia. Together with his closest associates, the emperor formed a secret committee with which he discussed all plans for state transformation. This community was called the Committee of Public Safety, and is also known as the Social Movement of Alexander I.
Reforms of Alexander I
Immediately after Alexander I came to power, the transformations became visible to the naked eye. His reign is usually divided into two parts: at first, the reforms of Alexander I occupied all his time and thoughts, but after 1815, the emperor became disillusioned with them and began a reactionary movement, that is, on the contrary, he squeezed people in a vice. One of the most important reforms was the creation of the “Indispensable Council”, which was later transformed into the State Council with several departments. The next step is the creation of ministries. If previously decisions on any issues were made by a majority vote, now a separate minister was responsible for each industry, who regularly reported to the head of state.
Reformer Alexander I | Russian history The reforms of Alexander I also affected the peasant issue, at least on paper. The emperor thought about abolishing serfdom, but wanted to do it gradually, and was unable to determine the steps of such a slow liberation. As a result, the decrees of Alexander I on “free cultivators” and the ban on selling peasants without the land on which they live turned out to be a drop in the bucket. But Alexander’s transformations in the field of education became more significant. By his order, a clear gradation of educational institutions was created according to the level of the educational program: parish and district schools, provincial schools and gymnasiums, universities. Thanks to the activities of Alexander I, the Academy of Sciences was restored in St. Petersburg, the famous Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum was created and five new universities were founded.
Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum founded by Emperor Alexander I | All-Russian Museum of A.S. Pushkin But the sovereign’s naive plans for the rapid transformation of the country encountered opposition from the nobles. He could not quickly implement his reforms for fear of a palace coup, plus the wars occupied the attention of Alexander 1. Therefore, despite good intentions and the desire to carry out reforms, the emperor was unable to realize all his desires. In fact, besides educational and government reform, the only thing of interest is the Constitution of Poland, which the ruler’s associates considered as a prototype for the future Constitution of the entire Russian Empire. But the turn of Alexander I’s domestic policy towards reaction buried all the hopes of the liberal nobility.
Politics of Alexander I
The starting point for a change of opinion about the need for reform was the war with Napoleon. The emperor realized that in the conditions that he wanted to create, rapid mobilization of the army was impossible. Therefore, Emperor Alexander 1 shifted his policy from liberal ideas to the interests of state security. A new reform is being developed, which has proven to be the most successful: military reforms.
Portrait of Alexander I | Runiverse With the help of the Minister of War, a project for a completely new type of life is being created - a military settlement, which represented a new class. Without particularly burdening the country's budget, it was intended to maintain and staff a standing army at wartime levels. The growth in the number of such military districts continued throughout the years of the reign of Alexander I. Moreover, they were preserved under his successor Nicholas I and were abolished only by the emperor.
Wars of Alexander I
In fact, the foreign policy of Alexander I boiled down to a series of constant wars, thanks to which the territory of the country increased significantly. After the end of the war with Persia, Alexander I's Russia gained military control of the Caspian Sea, and also expanded its possessions by annexing Georgia. After the Russian-Turkish War, the Empire's possessions were replenished by Bessarabia and all the states of Transcaucasia, and after the conflict with Sweden - by Finland. In addition, Alexander I fought with England, Austria and started the Caucasian War, which did not end during his lifetime.
Russia's main military adversary under Emperor Alexander I was France. Their first armed conflict occurred back in 1805, which, despite periodic peace agreements, constantly flared up again. Finally, inspired by his fantastic victories, Napoleon Bonaparte sent troops into Russian territory. The Patriotic War of 1812 began. After the victory, Alexander I entered into an alliance with England, Prussia and Austria and made a series of foreign campaigns, during which he defeated Napoleon’s army and forced him to abdicate the throne. After this, the Kingdom of Poland also went to Russia.
When the French army found itself on the territory of the Russian Empire, Alexander I declared himself commander-in-chief and forbade peace negotiations until at least one enemy soldier remained on Russian soil. But the numerical advantage of Napoleon's army was so great that Russian troops constantly retreated deeper into the country. Soon the emperor agrees that his presence is disturbing the military leaders, and leaves for St. Petersburg. Mikhail Kutuzov, who was highly respected by soldiers and officers, became the commander-in-chief, but most importantly, this man had already proven himself to be an excellent strategist.
Painting "Kutuzov on the Borodino Field", 1952. Artist S. Gerasimov | Mind mapping And in the Patriotic War of 1812, Kutuzov again showed his keen mind as a military tactician. He planned a decisive battle near the village of Borodino and positioned the army so well that it was covered by natural terrain on both flanks, and the commander-in-chief placed artillery in the center. The battle was desperate and bloody, with huge losses on both sides. The Battle of Borodino is considered a historical paradox: both armies declared victory in the battle.
Painting "Napoleon's Retreat from Moscow", 1851. Artist Adolph Northern | Chrontime To keep his troops in combat readiness, Mikhail Kutuzov decides to leave Moscow. The result was the burning of the former capital and its occupation by the French, but Napoleon's victory in this case turned out to be Pirova. In order to feed his army, he was forced to move to Kaluga, where Kutuzov had already concentrated his forces and did not allow the enemy to go further. Moreover, partisan detachments delivered effective blows to the invaders. Deprived of food and unprepared for the Russian winter, the French began to retreat. The final battle near the Berezina River put an end to the defeat, and Alexander I issued a Manifesto on the victorious end of the Patriotic War.
Personal life
In his youth, Alexander was very friendly with his sister Ekaterina Pavlovna. Some sources even hinted at a relationship closer than just brotherly and sisterly. But these speculations are very unlikely, since Catherine was 11 years younger, and at the age of 16, Alexander I had already connected his personal life with his wife. He married a German woman, Louise Maria Augusta, who, after converting to Orthodoxy, became Elizaveta Alekseevna. They had two daughters, Maria and Elizabeth, but both died at the age of one, so it was not the children of Alexander I who became the heir to the throne, but his younger brother Nicholas I.
TVNZ Due to the fact that his wife was unable to give him a son, the relationship between the emperor and his wife cooled greatly. He practically did not hide his love affairs on the side. At first, Alexander I cohabited for almost 15 years with Maria Naryshkina, the wife of Chief Jägermeister Dmitry Naryshkin, whom all the courtiers called “an exemplary cuckold” to his face. Maria gave birth to six children, and the paternity of five of them is usually attributed to Alexander. However, most of these children died in infancy. Alexander I also had an affair with the daughter of the court banker Sophie Velho and with Sofia Vsevolozhskaya, who gave birth to an illegitimate son from him, Nikolai Lukash, a general and war hero.
Wikipedia In 1812, Alexander I became interested in reading the Bible, although before that he was basically indifferent to religion. But he, like his best friend Alexander Golitsyn, was not satisfied with the framework of Orthodoxy alone. The emperor was in correspondence with Protestant preachers, studied mysticism and various movements of the Christian faith and sought to unite all faiths in the name of “universal truth.” Russia under Alexander I became more tolerant than ever before. The official church was outraged by this turn and began a secret behind-the-scenes struggle against like-minded people of the emperor, including Golitsyn. Victory remained with the church, which did not want to lose power over the people.
Emperor Alexander I died in early December 1825 in Taganrog, during another trip that he loved very much. The official cause of death of Alexander I was fever and inflammation of the brain. The sudden death of the ruler caused a wave of rumors, spurred by the fact that shortly before, Emperor Alexander drew up a manifesto in which he transferred the right of succession to the throne to his younger brother Nikolai Pavlovich.
Death of Emperor Alexander I | Russian Historical Library People began to say that the emperor falsified his death and became the hermit Fyodor Kuzmich. This legend was very popular during the lifetime of this truly existing old man, and in the 19th century it received additional argumentation. The fact is that it was possible to compare the handwriting of Alexander I and Fyodor Kuzmich, which turned out to be almost identical. Moreover, today genetic scientists have a real project to compare the DNA of these two people, but so far this examination has not been carried out.
